[Image] What is Islam? What is Islam? If someone would ask an orientalist this question, he would probably respond by saying: 'It is a combination of islam and iman.' This answer provokes another question; what do these concepts mean? Iman is usually translated as a 'personal faith' or 'belief', yet it is not very similar to the Judeo-Christian understanding of that word. It is probably best defined as 'a shelter from danger' or 'protection from enemies'. In the pre-Islamic Arabian society, an outlaw would seek iman after being expelled from his tribe. It refers to his trust in his protector, who would guard him as any other member of his tribe. For an early Arab believer in 'Allah', iman simply meant a change of identity. He did not belong any longer to his blood-tribe but to the Islamic umma (community) and would seek protection from 'Allah' and his Apostle. It must be noted that there are two kinds of iman; eternal and temporal. 'Allah' is believed to be the only one on whom the eternal iman is bestowed and to his creation the temporal iman is given.18 The term 'islam'(s-l-m) on the other hand, is more difficult to explain. At the present time, the universal acceptance of its meaning is 'submission.' Many scholars have attempted to describe this term differently and it seems that broader meanings have been established. The most extreme view was proposed by D. S. Margoliouth, who argued that the term 'Muslim' (s-l-m) originally referred to the followers of the Arab prophet Musaylimah, who was Muhammed's contemporary. This view has been turned down by most, if not all, authentic scholars. Probably the most logical explanation was given by Max M. Bravmann, who argued that s-l-m meant 'defiance to death' and 'self sacrifice', related semantically to the word 'jihad' (warlike effort). Daniel Easterman suggests that "Muhammed transmogrified the idea, so that it now meant 'defiance of death for the sake of God ['Allah'] and His Prophet'."19 Thus Islam could very well mean jihad and iman - fight and believe. Bravmann continues: For it is inconceivable that a man should have joined Muhammad and his religion without being ready to sacrifice his life in battle (and also his property) for God ['Allah'] and His prophet. According to this interpretation, 'islam' (like jihad) was originally a secular concept, denoting a sublime virtue in the eyes of the primitive Arab: defiance of death, heroism, in the fight for honour or for what seemed to him the most notable aspirations. His ideal was to be killed in battle... while surrender to the enemy was considered ignominious.20 Another distinguished authority, Helmer Ringgren, discussed in broad terms this Arabic word and concluded that "the stress lies on totality, not on submission."21 The Koran never does explain this word sufficiently and therefore we cannot conclude with certainty that, in the beginning, Islam was supposed to mean 'submission'. However, it also points out that the Arabs knew its meaning and did not need any explanation. D. Z. H. Baneth asks himself: "Is not a word expressing 'surrender', 'submission', 'resignation' as a name for the new religion far too spiritual for the social environment in which Muhammad had to preach?" His conclusion is that 'submission' was hardly the concept Muhammed had in mind when he called his religion Islam.22 In fact, the passive and peaceful asceticism which was common among Muhammed's earliest followers and Arabian Christians was denounced by the Prophet. He even took another step and declared: "There is no monasticism (rahbaniya) in Islam; the monasticism of this community is the Holy War (jihad)."23 The expansion of Islam was to be carried out by force, not peaceful persuasion, and thus it was only logical to chose an aggressive term for the new religion, which based its existence on warfare and the use of force. The word 's-l-m' refers both to a name of a certain religion (Islam) and a more secular term translated as islam/aslama/muslim. However, as Jane I. Smith points out, there is no real difference between the religious and secular meanings.24 Arent Wensinck explains this combination as follows: "In the Koran the terms islam and iman (faith) are synonymous; muslim and mu'min [believer] comprise the whole body of those who had escaped from Hell by embracing Islam."25 When the Islamic Empire was firmly established and 'secularism' emerged, the word 's-l-m' came to be understood in two ways: both as a religious and a secular concept. Although fundamentalists and secularists practised the religion (din) in different ways, they still professed the same creed and thus had to be recognised as Muslims, regardless of their conviction and adherence to its practices. In fact, the words 'Islam' and 'Muslim' were not used by Muhammed until a fairly late period of his prophetic career. The earliest possible date is 2 AH (624 CE) but it probably was later. Before the hijra to Medina, Muhammed's followers were simply called believers (mu'minun) and that name was used even after Muhammed's death. In fact, mu'minun "is both earlier and more frequently used, occurring 179 times in the Koran as against 37 occurrences of muslimun."26 It is logical to assume that tradition is correct when it quotes Muhammed's words as: "Islam is external, faith belongs to the heart." Thus, Islam presumably refers to some outward action, not to a mental or spiritual condition. Arent Wensinck continues: It was the rapid course of events in the first decades following the death of Muhammad - the hostile attitude taken by the previously islamized tribes, the restoration of order by Abu Bakr and his generals, the splendid feats of arms under Umar, which were followed by the islamization of large parts of the ancient world - that made clear to the Companions, and to the pious generation of their successors, that the term 'Islam' had obtained a temporal meaning. It seemed as if the narrow path, originally the only way by which the city of Islam could be reached, had been enlarged and paved and become easy highway for the multitudes who came from all sides to embrace Islam.27 During the first years after Muhammed's death, Islam changed its meaning from being a narrow path of warfare and strife, to become an accessible way for the commoner to walk. When Muhammed began to use the word 's-l-m' he simply referred to soldiers who were willing to die for the faith. In the light of the recent wars of terrorism some Islamic groups have been waging against Israel, Jews, the West and 'moderate' Muslims, one notices their attachment to Islam's original meaning. Thus, one could argue that their 'fundamentalism' really means to turn back to the original meaning of Islam. This theological question may be explained by referring to the double meaning of the word jihad ('holy war'), which consists of both 'inner' and 'outer' jihad. At first this word meant to 'fight until the end' - to the utmost of one's capacity. When the Islamic Empire had been established the 'inner' jihad of one's personal fight against his ego and sinful desires came into being. The words 'islam' and 'jihad' took on new and more peaceful meanings when Islam developed. They were not only connected with 'imperialistic' expansion by force, but the expansion of Islamic values inside oneself and a growing faith (iman) in 'Allah'. Indeed, Muhammed described the three most important works a man could perform as faith, war in the path of 'Allah' and a blameless pilgrimage.28 The concept 'islam' has its antagonistic term in Islamic theology. That is the shirk, which theological meaning is to associate 'Allah' with another gods. To describe a term such as shirk one has to cover a wide range of explanations and theological commentaries. The core of the Muslim understanding of shirk is the condemnation of anyone who commits such an atrocity, which 'Allah' could never forgive. According to the Koran, 'Allah' is one and no other god can be associated with him. This concept was most likely adopted from the South Arabian moon-god ar-Rahman (the Merciful), whose name was later adopted by Muslims as one of 'Allah's' titles. C. C. Torrey states: The South Arabian inscriptions have brought to light a highly interesting parallel. In a number of them there is mention of the God, who is styled 'the Rahman' (Merciful). A monument in the British Museum... is especially remarkable. Here we find clearly indicated the doctrines of the divine forgiveness of sins, the acceptance of sacrifice, the contrast between this world and the next, and the evil of 'associating' other deities with the Rahman.29 The theological concept of shirk, however, goes beyond the simple denial of 'Allah's' unity. It can also be a superficial piety of Muslims who fulfil their prayer obligation due to peer pressure, force of habit, or some other hypocritical reason. However, there exist two relevant concepts called 'lesser shirk' (al-shirk al-asghar) and 'hidden shirk' (al-shirk al-khafiy), in the depths of the human's soul.30 Shirk can be almost anything if considered in this perspective. Indeed, Ibn Ishaq tells us about the erection of Medina's first mosque, when Muhammed worked side-by-side with his followers. One of the Muslim rhymed, "If we sat down while the prophet worked - it could be said that we had shirked."31 However, shirk seems to be applied, in the contemporary Muslim theology, almost exclusively to the original meaning of the word -the association of other gods with 'Allah'. Muhammed probably committed this interpretation of shirk when he associated three Arabian goddesses with 'Allah', which is called the 'affair of the Satanic verses'. Muhammed's troubles had started when Abu Jahl, one of his most fierce adversaries in Mecca, came to him and demanded that he would stop cursing their gods. Although Muhammed hated polytheism, he had a great respect for the Kaaba, the Meccan place of idol worship, and, at this stage, could not afford to invoke any further hostility. Thus he declared: Do not revile the idols which they invoke besides Allah, lest in their ignorance they revile Allah with rancour. Thus have We made the actions of all men seem pleasing to themselves. To their Lord they shall return, and We will declare to them all that they have done.32 According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammed then refrained from cursing the Meccan idols, but called them all by the same name, 'Allah'.33 Muhammed had now merged all the 300-some idols at the Kaaba into the city's chief deity, calling all of them by the same name. Thus Islam is the religion of 'oneness' as opposite to shirk, which literally means to 'join together' or 'participate'. That implies, that there is no other true religion, and to Islam all men should surrender in submission, in order not to commit shirk and become zindiqs (those who reject 'Allah's' oneness) kafirs (infidels, lit. unbelievers; kufr=unbelief) or mulids (atheists). The Muslim author Fatima Mernissi discusses these terms and, after having declared the opposition of islam and shirk, states: Shirk is the most appropriate word for translating the word "freedom" in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration for Human Rights, which is posed as an ideal to be attained. "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; this includes freedom to change his religion..."34 Thus, if shirk, as the opposite term for islam, stands for freedom of thought, conscience and religion, it is not surprising that Islam has had some problems with facing the Western way of thought, with its democracy and varieties of 'freedoms'. [Image][Image] Notes: 18 Jeffery, Islam, 157. 19 Daniel Easterman, New Jerusalems. Reflections on Islam, fundamentalism and the Rushdie affair (London, 1992), 150. 20 M. M. Bravmann, The Spiritual Background of Early Islam. Studies in Ancient Arab Concepts (Leiden, 1972), 8-9. 21 Helmer Ringgren, Islam, 'Aslama and Muslim (Lund, 1949), 13. 22 D. Z. H. Banath, 'What Did Muhammad Mean When He Called his religion 'Islam'? The original meaning of aslama and the deriavatives', Israel Oriental Studies 1 (1971), 183-150. 23 Quoted in Ignaz Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law (Princeton, 1981), 123, 128. 24 Jane I. Smith, An Historical and Semantic Study of the term 'Islam' as Seen in a Sequence of Koran Commentaries (Montana, 1975), 1. 25 Wensinck, Muslim Creed, 22. 26 Watt, Early Islam, 35. 27 ibid, 22-23. 28 ibid, 27. 29 Charles Cutler Torrey, The Jewish Foundation of Islam (New York, 1933), 55. 30 Goldziher, Introduction, 42. 31 Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 228. 32 The Koran 6:108. 33 Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 162. 34 Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy. Fear of the Modern World (London, 1993), 87.